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In this paper the bituminous water proof mortar, which has been used between the bricks in the Achaemenes monument of Tall-e-Ajori in Persepolis, has been analyzed by different instrumental chemical analysis methods, such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X ray diffraction (XRD and X ray florescence spectroscopies (XRF). Moreover, due to identifying the chemical structure and explanation the degradation processes during thousand years of remaining inburial environment, the classical extraction by organic solvents and optical microscopy studies were also done. According to classical extraction test results, the physical state of the bituminous water proof mortar is a duple mixture that include organic and inorganic parts, where the characteristic of the material is actually a natural asphalt. The organic part of this bituminous mixture was analyzed by FT-IR method for identifying the main organic functional groups such as alkanes and aromatic molecules, XRD analysis determined the presence of inorganic phases such as Calcite, Anhydrite, Feldespar (Ca), Quartz and Dolomite, and the result of XRF analysis determined weight percent of CaO, SO3, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and MgO. The degradation processes during thousands of years in the burial environment have developed the age-hardening reactions which decrease the saturated molecules concentration such as oils and resins in bituminous mixture, and caused the enhanced fragility and brittleness in the structure of the material. So, the results obtained clarifies the importance of conservation programming and climate controlling for optimum preserving of the bituminous mixture mortars in the Achaemenes monument remains of Tall-e-Ajori in persepolis.

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Investigation of gypsum-based historical materials has two main problems: philological problems and technical issues. Technical issues, the main topic of this article, are normally consequences of physicochemical complexity of gypsum crystals in different conditions and variety of additives or mixed materials. Neglecting this technical problem, leads researchers to misunderstand or misinterpret these materials. Moreover, exclusively use of one analytical method, such as scanning electron microscope or X-ray fluorescence, provides an incomplete picture of samples that regularly produces further misunderstanding of specimen or its history. The methodology of this study is a multianalytical approach via XRD, SEM and using image analysis software on electron photomicrographs to estimate amount of free spaces in microstructure of samples. A group of three experimental samples were made from traditional recipes of craftsmen in Iran, in order to make a connection between philological problems came from tradition, ad technical problems came from mineralogical property of gypsum. Gach-e Tiz, or quick setting mortar shows a very dense microstructure in SEM micrographs. Variety sizes of monoclinic crystals of gypsum are present in it, and moreover some shapeless and bulky regions are also visible. Gach-e Kam-Mayeh, or low setting mortar reveals a much more open microstructure than the former one, filled with needle like crystals and a lot of micro porosity between crystals. There is no evidence of bulky forms area in Gach-e Kam-Mayeh. Gach-eKoshteh, or mechanical low-setting mortar which is a traditional Iranian recipe, shows a parallel layers of laminar gypsum crystals setting upon each other. This form also demonstrates no evidence ofbulky regions. Historical samples were collected from a stucco decoration belong to Kuh-e Khwaja ofSistan; a gypsum mortar fragment from Shadyakh, Neyshabur and a piece of gypsum mortar from Alamut castle of Qazvin. The results of XRD show that both layers of Kuh-e Khwaja stucco containanhy r te as the major phase and the sample of Shadiyakh mostly composed of Gypsum. Organic materials extractions represent no evidence of organic additive to this historical materials. Thereforethe images of their microstructure are comparable with experimental samples that made without anyadditive. Lower layer of Kuh-e Khwaja’s stucco shows a lot of tiny crystals that are not very look likegypsum, but precipitated on the surface of bigger and deformed crystals. The microstructure of it isvery open and include big amount of micro porosity in compare with other samples. Upper layer ofthis stucco shows not any form of gypsum crystals but very disturbed flaked shapes, supposedlygypsum crystals transformed to anhydrate. The micrographs of Shadiyakh’s mortar also reveal not anyclear form of gypsum crystals but base on XRD result it still as gypsum materials. This samplecontains mostly from that bulky and dense structure which shows the usage of low amount of waterfor its paste. The results of image analysis on electron micrographs at magnification of ×250 and×500 provide a good and comparable estimation for free space evaluation in the micro structure ofgypsum based materials. The combination of these tniques and methods lead to betterunderstanding of gypsum based historical material

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In the Bronze Age Archaeology of Northwestern Iran (plateau), the advent of various types of handmade gray-black ceramics shows the arrival of the so-called Kura-Araxian culture. The Urmia Ware, dating to the Late Bronze Age, on the other hand, represents the revival of the buff painted pottery tradition, following the decline of the Early Bronze Kura-Araxian culture. The present work attempted to examine the matrixes of samples of sherds in the Early Bronze gray-black pottery of Kura-Araxes, and a further samples of sherds in the Late Bronze buff-painted pottery of Urmian Ware, all collected during the surface surveys of Kul Tepe, Ajabshir County, through the petrographic technique and observing thin-sections by polarizing microscope, as well as XRD and FT-IR analysis. The main objective was to study the similarities in the structure of the Early Bronze (Kura-Araxian) and Late Bronze (Urmian Ware) ceramics. The primary focus was on examining the possibility of local production of these ceramics through the analysis of the prepared thin-sections and ascertaining their technology, structure and composition, as well as gathering data on such fields as compositions and resources of raw material. Since Kul Tepe contains both Early Bronze and Late Bronze deposits, it offers a good opportunity for studying Archaeometrically the problem of discontinuity in technological pottery traditions, and the fact that whether the Urmian Ware tradition represented a local or an imported phenomenon. Results of the polarization microscopy, as well as the XRD and FT-IR analyses and their comparison to the available regional petrographic indices, showed that the clay used in both samples was procured from a single source, and the Early Bronze Age sherds and the Late Bronze Age painted sherds were then both manufactured locally.

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In some of the archeological museum, the variety of blue object are nominated as Egyptian Blue, Lapis lazuli and Lapis lazuli paste. In this research, it was found that there are many mistake in this classification. Lapis lazuli, a brilliant azure-blue color gemstone, is a mixture of minerals, primarily containing the lazurite (blue) with small amounts of calcite, sodalite, and gold-color flecks of pyrite. It has been prized as an ornamental stone for over 6000 years. The most valuable lapis lazuli is the uniform dark blue stone from Badakhshan of Afganistan. This semiprecious blue stone was, and still is, used for jewelry, mosaics and small carvings. Lapis lazuli was also ground and purified to make natural ultramarine blue pigments. The Egyptian blue is the earliest known multicomponent synthetic pigment produced in ancient times in Egypt since the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom in the 3rd millennium BC, where it has been found as a pigment and formed into small objects such as amulets or beads. Egyptian blue frit is a multicomponent material that was produced by firing a mixture of quartz, lime, a copper compound and an alkali flux to a temperature in the range 850-1000 ◦C. Its principal components are calcium-copper tetrasilicate crystals (cuprorivaite), which produce the blue color, and partially reacted quartz particles bonded together by varying amounts of glass phase. In Mesopotamia from about 1200 to 900 BC, the best information on artefacts of Egyptian blue comes from the destruction debris of Hasanlu in north-west of Iran. Also, the range of Egyptian blue production in the Achaemenid period is the best represented in the excavations at Persepolis. It must be emphasized that "Lapis lazuli Paste" is a wrong term which is not truly exist. In this research, considering the wrong terms which is used for nomination of the collection of blue objects; in the labels, registration records, catalogs and etc, some scientific research was done to specify their characterization. 10 objects from different archaeological sites including Hasanlu, Ziwiyh and Persepolis from the period of 1st millennium BC to Achamenid were selected for this research. These objects were in different size and dimensions, including high jug with a variety of blue color from dark to pale blue, censer, plaque, small head of a young prince or princess and etc. At first, all of the samples were documented and then, structural investigation was realized by binocular microscope, to know condition and texture of their surfaces. Scientific and analytical research was done by SEM-EDX and XRD. As a result, all of these objects was identified as Egyptian blue. Finally, it was required to consider and overview the classification of the group of blue objects, which was wrongly nominated as "lapis lazuli paste", in fact, it does not exist.

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This paper presents the results of the Identifying the binder and pigments used in the mural paintings in RahimAbad Historic Garden and Mansion in Birjand. Birjand was one of the most important governmental strategic cities in Qajar era (1789–1925A.D) and an important branch area of ancient Silk Road which connected India to Europe. Though many monuments, especially historical gardens remained in Birjand. RahimAbad Historic Garden and Mansion was the resident of Qaenat ruler to consider politics, businesses and accommodating foreign guests. The most important part in the Architectural decoration of RahimAbad Historic Garden and Mansion is mirror-encrusted decorations, stucco and mural paintings. Due to diversity in building decorations and multiplicity of constructing periods in RahimAbad Historic Garden and Mansion, identification of pigments used in mural paintings is a great evidential assistance in extracting chronological information. scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX)، Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Polarized light microscopy (PLM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and handheld X-Ray Florescence (micro-XRF) were used for the characterization of the compound and structure of the paint layers of samples taken from mural paintings. AccordThis paper presents the results of the identification of the binder and pigments used in the mural paintings in Rahim Abad Historic Garden and Mansion in Birjand. Birjand was one of the most important governmental strategic cities in Qajar era (1789–1925 A.D.), and an important branch area of ancient Silk Road, which connected India to Europe. Many monuments, especially historical gardens have been remained in Birjand. Rahim Abad Historic Garden and Mansion is one of this gardens, which in the period of Amir Ismail Khan Shaukat Molk, was the location of Qaenat ruler to consider politics, businesses and accommodating foreign guests. The most important part in the Architectural decoration of Rahim Abad Historic Garden and Mansion is mirror-encrusted decorations, stucco and wall paintings. Due to diversity in building decorations and multiplicity of constructing periods in Rahim Abad Historic Garden and Mansion, identification of pigments and materials used in wall paintings is of a great evidential assistance in extracting chronological information. Wall painting is one of the Iran arts that based on the signs of old paint can be pursued to pre-history. One of the most important issues in the study of historical paintings, especially wall painting, is the identification of the nature of paintings used to decorate the walls. Pigments identification is also important not only from the perspective of archeology, but also in terms of the history of art and knowledge of degradation processes and the development of monument conservation strategies is also important. Scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX) ،Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Polarized light microscopy (PLM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and handheld X-Ray Florescence spectroscopy (micro-XRF) were used for the characterization of the compound and structure of the paint layers of samples taken from mural paintings. In fact, chemical and physical analysis, provides useful information from spectrum of pigments in a region and recognizing color preparation techniques and its application. Also before proceeding restoration, the accurate information from the chemical composition of materials used in object is required. According to the obtained results, mixture of gypsum and calcite as a substrate layer, red lead (Pb₃O₄), mixture of malachite (CuCO₃.Cu(OH)₂) and Prussian blue)Fe₄(Fe[CN]₆)₃), ultramarine (Na_8-10Al₆Si₆O₂₄S_2-4), and mixture of two metals, copper and zinc, as the pigments were used. Also, an adhesive like animal glue was that of common materials in Qajar period, as well as used to substrate color. Such pigments are further evidence that the mural painting of this monument are from the late Qajar. Oil was used as binder or varnish in this painting and there is in all of the samples. One of the interesting points of the materials used in the paintings was the application of a mixture of pigments to create colors with different tonalities. Another point is the use of imported pigments such as Prussian blue, along with other traditional pigments that were common in of that era. Also, the microscopic examination of golden color indicates the presence of chalcopyrite in this pigment. These compounds exist due to the corrosion of copper metal in golden color, and usually appears in golden colors obtained from two metals alloy, such as copper and zinc, by creating green color in a golden background.ing to the obtained results,mixture of gypsum and calcite as a preparatory layer, red lead (Pb₃O₄), mixture of malachite (CuCO₃.Cu(OH)₂) and Prussian blue ) Fe₄(Fe[CN]₆)₃), ultramarine (Na_8-10Al₆Si₆O₂₄S_2-4), and mixture of two metals, copper and zinc, as pigments were used. Also, an adhesive like animal glue was that of common materials in Qajar period, as well as used to substrate color. Such pigments are further evidence that the Mural Painting of this Monument are from the late Qajar. Oil was used as binder or varnish in this painting and there is in all of colors.

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In archeometry studies, one of the hidden angles that can be the great help in the field of accurate understanding of ancient materials is the study of ancient texts and finding the equivalence of them with modern ones. Before an Iranian archaeologist wants to study a historical sample, it must be determined what information is available in ancient Persian texts about that sample .The first step in identifying and obtaining this information is to understand the vocabularies and words relevant to that science.  But sometimes words from the Persian language are outdated and alternatives from another languages are nowadays designated for that word, which are well known and used in scientific societies and Their Persian form is unknown, so the obscurity of today's obsolete equivalents makes some of the information relevant to it still ambiguous in interpreting ancient texts and remains unknown. by finding the ancient name  of the words and their equivalence with the well-known words of today, valuable information can be obtain in a wide range of studies. Khomāhan is one of these ancient and obsolete Persian words that has been defined only in the historical books of medicine and minerals, dictionaries and in Persian poems and these definitions only emphasizes that it is an iron ore. In these books two types of male and female are mentioned for it.  It is said that female khomāhan is a reddish- black stone that, when sinking in water, red color will be appeared and It has been used as a red pigment like a vermillion, and the male khoamāhan is a black stone and when sinking it in water yellow color will be appeared, it has been used as a yellow pigment like an orpiment. In Persian poetry also is mentioned about magnetic or black khomāhan. Black khomāhan is also a kind of a very black colored stone and is considered to be the best kind of khomāhan. Thus, the word khomāhan is referred to three stone but it is not known precisely which word or equivalent is known today. In this regard, female khomāhan that has been used in ancient medicine in Iran is found from perfumery and experiments have been carried out in order to prove what is said in ancient texts about female khomāhan. This research shows that female khomāhan is the equivalent of the Latin word hematite. According to researches, this term in ancient Iran, in addition to hematite, was also referred to as other iron ore. In this study, it was found that the “male khomāhan” is equivalent to today's known mineral of the European word "goethite" and the word “magnetic and black khomāhan” refers to the word “Magnetite”.
 

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The largest known architectural work of Ilam civilization is the temple of Choghazanbil from Medieval period, in Southwestern Iran (Khuzestan Province), dated to the 13^st century BC. The temple has been made by terrestrial soil that has been taken, along riverbanks whose water content is unlimited, indicating wood for directional burning various uses, especially brick firing (and suitable soil for the production of bricks and mortar).That was done however more or less the same as today. The largest volume consumption of materials in Choghazanbil was based on clay that is a major element in the construction of architectural structures. The major architectural elements of historic site of Choghazenbil were bricks and adobe that have been covered in past marbles, but have become dull as time goes by. This research undertake for identifying appropriate clay reserves for optimal restoration purposes of the monuments. The material has been studied quantitatively and qualitatively by physical and chemical methods, in order to clarify what are the affecting factors for selection the best clay based soil for optimal restoration. In this regard, geological formation around Chogazanbil have been studies based on the previous research and in the highlighted locals as A, B, C, D, E, G. Investigations on alluvial deposits of R1, R2 carried out by XRD, XRF, grading, hydrometric and Aterberg boundary. Based on the obtained diagrams, the non-sandy soils contain most of the silty fine grains. This will assume the highest paste index or PI corresponds to sample C and the lowest PI to sample R1. Inflation potential was also found in pastures B, D, E, R1, R2 based on paste index. However, the swelling potential of C and G3 mines was moderate. The results of mineralogical experiments showed that calcite and quartz are the most minerals in the studied soils samples. Calcite in the soil, besides being a deterrent to inflation and divergence due to the presence of clay minerals, can also increase the strength of clay materials. The soils were poor quality in terms of high quality clay minerals such as kaolinite and montmorillonite. XRD analyses show that the amount of silica, in sample E is optimal for clay preparation. This effect makes the clay with high adhesion and strength coefficient produced by calcite. The amount of chlorine and sulfate ions in the soils of B, C, D, E, and G3 areas were also higher than the permitted amount. Sodium and potassium chloride have an important role in swelling and divergence of clay because of monovalent ions in their crystal chemistry. Indeed the soils were divergent soils, due to their salt content and therefor, show little resistance to humidity and water. Discriminating of that, excessive calcite in the samples can be considered as a deterrent agent for rapid inflation. Sulfate can also cause adhesion in the vicinity of moisture and by the latent phenomenon of fracture. The coherence factor of clay structures can effects of this phenomenon and probably most damages on the clay based structure of the Choghaznabil area are the result of this point. Based on the results obtained, the soils reservoirs around Choghaznabil are far from common daily standards for norm brick making, but after refining and valuable preparation, followed by processing, molding and drying can optimally have better mechanical behavior and might be reused for construction. Moreover, the soils samples from R2 and G3 have appropriate grain size than other soils around the area. In this case of study, the best recipes can be achieved by mixing this kind of soil with sand and straw for avoiding the cracks, which had considerable deterioration factor in the vicinity of the humidity and moisture. Optimum handling and processing of the clays from R2 and G3 areas are capable to improve the mechanical behavior of the repaired clay for reusing in the restoration of Choghazanbil.
 

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The scientific research regarding investigation, characterization and protection of the archeological specimens is manifested through a notable participation of multidisciplinary subjects and experts, scientists and archeometrists. One of the main principals which are considered by archaeometrists in the study of the precious specimens is the utilizing nondestructive methods. As an example, in synchrotrons, parameters such as the high photon flux, the small source size and the low divergence attained make it a very efficient source for a range of advanced spectroscopy and imaging techniques, adapted to the heterogeneity and great complexity of the materials under study. The use of synchrotron radiation techniques to study cultural heritage and archaeological materials has undergone a steep increase over the past 10–15 years. The techniques mainly have been focused on are: X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray absorption (XAS), X-ray tomography microscopy (XTM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analyses. Among these, XRF spectroscopy is based on the detection of characteristic X-rays emitted. Impinging X-rays on an atom creates inner electron vacancy in it, where the excited atom returns to its ground state, the fluorescing photon is emitted. The energy of this photon is the difference in energy between the vacancy and the electronic state of the electron filling the vacancy. Analysis of the XRF spectra includes identification of the elements from the fluorescence spectra observed. On the other hand, XAS (or X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy) relies on the absorption of X-rays by atoms of the materials in the vicinity of the absorption edge of one of its constituting elements. This technique gives chemical information on the coordination sphere of the absorber.  In X-ray tomography, a set of radiographs are taken and used to reconstruct a 3D morphology of the studied object. With two procedure, the obtained 3D morphology corresponds to what is measured in the radiography: X-ray absorption contrast where the image formed on the detector is described assuming an straight trajectory for each photon when the density of the transversed matter modulates its intensity on the detector; where the main effect of the matter is refraction and the absorption is negligible, X-ray phase contrast plays role while the photon direction changes as it travels inside the material. Diffraction takes place whenever the wavelength of the interacting wave is comparable with a length scale of a periodic structure. Therefore, the analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns gives information about the atomic and molecular structure of matter. For amorphous systems, however, the absence of an ordered structure limits outcomes of the XRD technique. Nevertheless, it gives significant information on average interatomic or intermolecular distances. Infrared spectroscopy is based on a transition in the vibrational state of the molecules when the incident photon is absorbed. The energy of this photon is a characteristic of the nature of each vibration, involving a single bond or chemical group in the molecule. In this research, how synchrotron radiation, identified with super brilliant and parallel micro x-rays, can be applied to characterize archeological specimens is presented, and then, some results by which the advantages of using the synchrotron radiation technique over the prior ones can be stressed, noticeably, will be reasoned.hich the advantages of using the synchrotron radiation technique over the prior ones can be stressed, noticeably, will be reasoned.

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The early Bronze age of the southeastern Iran has been a major topic of discussion among scholars due to the discovery of Bronze Age urban centers in southeastern Iran, such as Shahr e Soukhte, Shahdad and Konar Sandal (Jiroft). Specialization is one of the main characteristics of urban societies. The manufacture and production of stone objects of different types such as chlorite, marble, travertine and lapis lazuli is one of the prominent features of the Southeast civilizations during the Bronze Age. The chlorite stone objects of the Jiroft civilization are considered the most significant archeological findings in the cultural basin of Halilrud. So far, many researches have been done on the iconography, production and distribution patterns of these vessels. Several interdisciplinary researches have been conducted on the origin and structure of some of these stone objects. Based on interdisciplinary studies, this article discusses the chronology of chlorite objects as well as their structure and their possible provenances in the south of Kerman province. Chlorite samples from two production workshops in Jiroft Plain - Konarsandal and Varamin – were analysed using thin section petrography and XRD methods.The different studies conducted on various samples from different sites and mines reveals that they used multiple sources such as the western mountainous areas (Esfandagheh) as well as southern regions.
In addition, the results of the analysis on two samples using the Accelerator Mass Spectrometer suggests new dates for the chlorite vessels. it was previously believed that these objects date back to the second half of the third millennium B.C. (2500-2000 BC) but with the recent results it is revealed that the chlorite objects of Jiroft were produced at least in a span of a thousand year from the early third millennium to the early of the second millennium BC.
 

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