Investigation of scientific archaeological excavation reports in Iran indicated that these excavations yielded a large number of fragments of glass objects from many archaeological sites, but a very limited number of preliminary studies on elemental analysis of a few Iranian glass objects have been published. Also, a literature survey on pre-Islamic glass objects (especially from Parthian and Sasanian epoch) indicates that there are only a few studies on a limited number of Sasanian and Parthian glasses from Iraq, too. However, a systematic analysis of the Parthian glasses artifacts from Iran is still missing and until now, no reports has been reported about the chemical composition of Parthian glasses from Iran. Therefore, for the first time, the chemical composition of Parthian glass objects from the Shaur Palace at Susa in Khuzistan Plain have been considered. Shaur Palace locates at the west of the ancient site of Susa, next to Shaur River, Khuzestan province, south-west of Iran. It has been excavated by a joint French-Iranian team since 1970 to 1976. There were recognized three Islamic, Parthian, and Achaemenid strata. In this work, 21 glass objects date back the Parthian period were analyzed by Micro- PIXE technique in order to measure the constituent elements and to investigate the types of glass and raw materials used in the manufacturing recipe. The micro-PIXE measurement was performed with scanning proton microprobe system manufactured by Oxford Instruments using the 3 MV Van de Graaff accelerators at the Nuclear Science & Technology Research Institute in Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. The samples were analyzed in a vacuum chamber using a beam of 2.5MeV protons focused to a diameter less than 10 μm. The beam current was in the range of 30 to 50 pA. Characteristic X-rays were detected using a Si(Li) detector with an active area of 60 mm2 positioned at an angle of 135° relative to the incident beam direction and with an energy resolution of 150 eV for Fe-Kα. Analyzed samples were fragments of the body, rim, bottom, and handle of vessels such as bowls, bottles and beakers. They were generally green with a nacreous coating, resulted from surface corrosion due to long-term burial in the soil. Also, 90% of glass objects manufactured at Shaur Palace were manufactured on free blowing method and most of them were plain and undecorated. Elemental analysis of the glass artifacts by micro-PIXE indicated that the constituent elements of the samples are sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphor, sulfur, chlorine, potassium, calcium, titanium, manganese, and iron, with different concentration and weight percent percentage (wt%). Determination and measurement of each of these elements respond to questions raised about the technology, type of the glass and raw materials of manufacturing recipe. The micro-PIXE analysis showed that these samples are mainely composed of SiO2 (63-65 wt %), Na2O (13-18 wt %) and CaO (6-8 wt %). Consequently, all these samples are Silica- Soda- Lime glass type. However, the amounts of magnesium oxide (MgO) and potassium oxide (K2O) in all analyzed samples were more than 2.5wt%, where their contents vary between 2.5 to 5wt%, and 2.5 to 4.5wt%, respectively. Therefore, it is was clear that the ashes obtained from halophytic plants are considered as supplying source for soda in these glasses, so these glasses are Plant ash Silica- Soda- Lime type. Moreover, the micro-PIXE results clearly revealed that in the manufacturing of all shaur glass objects the same sources of silica and plant ashes have been used. In addition, the strong linear correlation of minor elements in the samples indicated that colorants and decolorizing agents have not been intentionally added in the manufacturing process.

Glass beads are unique objects to investigate the trade and exchange of these artifacts between different regions and cultures in the past. The site of Saleh Davoud and its ancient tombs in Susa were excavated in two seasons in 2000 and 2004, under the supervising of Mehdi Rahbar. From these excavations, a significant number of colored glass beads and a number of pieces of glass vessels have been unearthed. In regard to the other objects such as coins, potteries, etc., the period of these glass artifacts dated back to the Parthian-Elymae period. The majority of glass vessels found in Saleh Davoud are simple in shape (undecorated) with green hue in contrast to the glass beads which were considered in much diversity of color. Meanwhile, the different color lines and the gilded layer were used to decorate on the external surface of beads. In this study, totally 13 samples of glass objects from Saleh Davoud, including five samples from glass vessels and eight samples from colored beads have been selected to analyze by micro-ion beam techniques. The aims of the analysis of these objects by micro-PIXE were to focuse on the elemental composition of the main body (bulk glass composition) of the artifacts as well as the decorations which were applied in order to identify the raw materials and get information about the mineral pigments. The thickness and purity of the gold in the gilded layer that was used in a few glass beads were also measured by micro-RBS. The most important questions and hypotheses in this research are: 1- Whether glass beads and glass vessels are locally produced or are imported from other areas; 2- Determination of the pigments and the elements that are responsible for different surface decoration of beads; and 3- Measurement of thickness and the purity of the gold layer using Rutherford Back Scattering (RBS) technique to obtain information about the gilding process. The micro-Ion Beam analysis was performed with microprobe system manufactured by Oxford Instruments using the 3 MV Van de Graaff accelerators at the Nuclear Science & Technology Research Institute in Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. The samples were analyzed in a vacuum chamber using a beam of 2.5MeV protons focused to a diameter less than 10 μm. The beam current was in the range of 30 to 50 pA. Characteristic X-rays were detected using a Si(Li) detector with an active area of 60 mm2 positioned at an angle of 135◦ relative to the incident beam direction and with an energy resolution of 150 eV for Fe-Kα. Elemental analysis and measurement of the constituents of these samples show that all analyzed glasses from the Saleh Davoud are Soda-lime-silica glass type. However, the weight percentages of magnesium oxide (MgO) and potassium oxide (K2O) in the analyzed samples suggest that the glass beads are manufactured by the mineral soda (natron) flux, and glass vessels were used the plant ashes as a flux. The amount of MgO and K2O are the main reason for this identification. These two oxides in the glass beads are less than 1.5wt. %, while in the glass vessels are more than 2.5wt. %. Therefore, the glass beads were most likely imported from other areas such as Egypt or the eastern Mediterranean Sea through the trade and exchange of glass products to the Saleh Davoud. Moreover, based on the elemental maps from the micro-PIXE analysis, the elements which are responsible for, red, green, yellow and white colors might be identified as Fe, Cu and Pb.

Over a hundred pieces of luster tiles were excavated in Qal’eh Dokhtar, Kerman. This article discusses the characteristic features of the luster tiles of Qal’eh Dokhtar, and the origins and sources of raw materials of these tiles. The tiles were classified in four groups: “octagonal star tiles”, “crucifix tiles”, “square tiles” and “rectangle tiles”. Then, the relative dating was done based on an inscription on a tile that reads: in 661 AH/1263 CE. The inscriptions of the luster tiles of Qal’eh Dokhtar also showed that they include poems. Eleven tiles have been chosen for chemical and microscopic analysis by Micro-PIXE, and SEM-EDX. The results indicated that there are different elements in the luster and paste of the samples of Qal’eh Dokhtar and other regions of Iran. Magnesium is the element of which was detected only in the samples of Qal’eh Dokhtar at high weight percentages and likely its mines exist in Ashin Valley around Jiroft.

 

Significant evidence of the lustre has been discovered during the excavation and restoration of the historical Arg-e Bam. 24 samples of these lustres are kept in the pottery bank and Exhibition of the Arg Bam. There are the following questions about them: what are the characteristic features of the lustrewares in the pottery bank and exhibition of the Arg-e Bam? Where is the production center of these lustrewares based on laboratory results? What local pottery traditions have existed in the production of lustreware in Kerman? After classification and typology of the lustrewares, 10 pieces have been chosen as the samples to perform elemental analysis of the body and glaze by the micro-PIXE method. The results of the elemental analysis of the paste and glaze indicated that these samples are of local origin and their raw materials are supplied from mines in Bam, Jiroft, or Kerman and produced in the same area. Therefore, the variety that can be seen in the color, pattern, and paste of these lustrewares is not due to their production in several centers in Iran, but due to production in different periods from the early to the late Islamic centuries in several local workshops in Kerman, Jiroft, or Bam.

This paper reports and discusses elemental composition results obtained from analysis of 36 glass fragments discovered from the Takht-e Suleiman World Heritage Site and Ardabil historical sites in northwestern Iran. The analyzed samples dating back to Sassanian /Islamic period. The glass objects in this study include decorative objects such as bracelet, pieces of vessels, and indefinites form such as chunk and raw materials, which are in different colors of light and dark green, emerald green, white, purple, turquoise, brown and black. Elemental analysis of these samples was performed using micro-PIXE technique in Van de Graaff Laboratory in the Nuclear Science & Technology Research Institute in Tehran, Iran. By micro-PIXE analysis, the major and minor elements of these glasses were measured. Elements measured in all 36 samples include: sodium oxide (Na₂O), magnesium oxide (MgO), aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), silicon oxide (SiO₂), phosphorus oxide (P₂O₅), Sulfur oxide (SO₃), chlorine (Cl), potassium oxide (K₂O), calcium oxide (CaO), titanium oxide (TiO₂), manganese oxide (MnO) and iron oxide (Fe₂O₃). Chromium oxide (Cr₂O3), cobalt oxide (CoO), copper oxide (Cu₂O), zinc oxide (ZnO), strontium oxide (SrO) and lead oxide (PbO) were also measured in a number of samples. In addition, one sample contains barium oxide (BaO) and two samples contain tin oxide (SnO₂) and arsenic oxide (As₂O₅). According to elemental analysis results, the important questions in technology and manufacturing technique, determining the raw materials used in manufacturing, determining the type of glass as well as investigation of trade and exchange of raw materials about analyzed glasses are answered. Furthermore, to investigate the provenance of artifacts and to determine the differences in the elemental compositions of glass excavated from Takht-e Suleiman World Heritage Site and Ardabil historical sites, our elemental composition results have been combined and compared with the reported results from other sites of the Eastern Mediterranean countries, such as Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon and neighboring countries of Iran such as Iraq.

Researchers and archeologists have always been interested in the elemental analysis of obsidian artifacts. Measurement of the elemental composition of obsidians provides a lot of information about trade and exchange between different regions and cultures in early societies. This paper reports and discusses elemental composition results obtained from analysis of 17 obsidian artifacts excavated in two seasons in 2018 and 2019 from the Tole Khari prehistoric site in the Pasargad complex in the Fars Province of Iran. Elemental analysis of these obsidians performed by micro-PIXE technique in Van de Graaff Laboratory in the Nuclear Science & Technology Research Institute (NSTRI) in Tehran, Iran. In this research, to study the provenance of obsidians obtained from Tal Khari, we combined and compared our results with elemental composition results reported from known sources of obsidian in Anatolia and Armenia. The results show that the obsidians from Tole Khari Tolclassified into two different groups based on elemental composition, in particular according to the concentration of Fe2O3, MnO, TiO2, and Al2O3. By comparing the obsidians of Tole Khari with obsidians from various sites in Anatolia and Armenia, it was found that the first group of obsidians from Tole Khari overlaps with obsidians from Bingol A in Anatolia, and the second group of these obsidians fits into obsidians from Nenezi Dag, Pasinler and Meydan Dag in central and eastern Anatolia. Therefore, it is probable and possible that the obsidians excavated in Tole Khari have supplied from known obsidian sources in Anatolia using a very long range of trade and exchange network, which was about 1000 to 1900 km.