The field monitoring of influential biodeteriogenic agents on the historic rock surfaces in Persepolis-UNESCO World Heritage Site - Journal of Research on Archaeometry
year 6, Issue 1 (2020)                   JRA 2020, 6(1): 175-192 | Back to browse issues page


XML Persian Abstract Print


1- Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology , sohrabi@irost.org
2- Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology
3- Research Institute of Cultural Heritage & Tourism
4- University of Tehran
Abstract:   (3104 Views)
Cultural heritage has always been the focus of many civilizations and therefore, it needs to be preserved for future generations. From prehistoric times, when grandeur and beauty were the aims of architecture, stone was the most widely used durable material. Biodeterioration of the stone monuments, one of the most important causes for the loss of the cultural heritage, is defined as any undesirable change in the properties of a material caused by the action of biological agents such as fungi, bacteria, cyanobacteria, lichens and plants, as well as animals such as insects. The world heritage of Persepolis, for example, has been unprotected from biodeterioration for the centuries, and has unfortunately not been addressed during this time. The purpose of this study is to provide a new perspective on the study of the destructive biological factors affecting this historic site to provide a framework for future studies and serious consideration of the biological debate in conservation and restoration issues. Therefore, the presence of various factors possibly derived from the action of animals, vascular plants, mosses, fungi, lichens, green microalgae, and photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic bacteria were investigated. Based on objective observations, the presence of biodegradation factors affecting floors and the all sides of walls of various buildings in Persepolis was qualitatively investigated. Based on the results, the studied areas were classified into four classes with very high, high, medium and low risk. In addition to the initial estimate of biodiversity, the factors affecting the biodegradation of Persepolis were presented for the first time and the critical points for the presence of destructive factors were determined. Lichens exist throughout Persepolis and have proved useful in archaeological studies, since their growth can be chronologically employed to measure the age of rocks and indeed ancient monuments, their radial growth increasing logarithmically over time based on the assumed specific rate. In this study, the presence of lichens has been investigated from the perspective of biodeterioration, their presence at the microscopic scale can intensify the weathering and biodeterioration of the rock. Such action is not visible to the naked eye but leaves irreparable damage to the stone surface. It was estimated that this complex process at Persepolis is the result of more than 15 different Vascular plant species and 5 Non-vascular plant (mosses), 16 or 17 different species of birds, 3 to 5 species of snails and 2 to 4 species of reptiles and insects. It was shown that the establishment of a biomonitoring laboratory at Persepolis is the important task of studying the action of microorganisms since it is estimated that more than 20 strains of non-photosynthetic bacteria, more than 10 taxa of cyanobacteria, about 15 plants and mosses, more than 130 lichen species and 20 species of non-lichen fungi are involved in the biodegradation of Persepolis. The results are the estimative and provide the basis for more detailed studies to monitor the factors involved in biodegradation, which is one of the necessities of this World Heritage Site.
Full-Text [PDF 2908 kb]   (1428 Downloads)    
Technical Note: Original Research | Subject: Archaeometry
Received: 2020/02/21 | Accepted: 2020/06/9 | Published: 2020/06/30 | ePublished: 2020/06/30

References
1. Piervittori R, Salvadori O, Seaward MRD. Lichens and Monuments. In: St.Clair L, Seaward M, editors. Biodeterioration of Stone Surfaces Lichens and Biofilms as Weathering Agents of Rocks and Cultural Heritage. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2004. p. 241-82. [DOI:10.1007/978-1-4020-2845-8_14]
2. Pangallo D, Bučková M, Kraková L, Puškárová A, Šaková N, Grivalský T, et al. Biodeterioration of epoxy resin: A microbial survey through culture-independent and culture-dependent approaches. Environ Microbiol. 2015;17(2):462-79. [DOI:10.1111/1462-2920.12523]
3. Ariño X, Saiz-Jimenez C. Biological diversity and cultural heritage. Aerobiologia (Bologna). 1996;12(1):279-82. [DOI:10.1007/BF02248165]
4. Ríos ADL, Cámara B, Ángeles M, Rico VJ, Galván V, Ascaso C, et al. Deteriorating effects of lichen and microbial colonization of carbonate building rocks in the Romanesque churches of Segovia (Spain). Sci Total Environ. 2009;407(3):1123-34. [DOI:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.09.042]
5. St.Clair L, Seaward M, editors. Biodeterioration of Stone Surfaces: Lichens and Biofilms as Weathering Agents of Rocks and Cultural Heritage. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2004. 292 p. [DOI:10.1007/978-1-4020-2845-8]
6. Scheerer S, Ortega‐Morales O, Gaylarde C. Microbial Deterioration of Stone Monuments-An Updated Overview. In: Laskin AI, Sariaslani S, Gadd GM, editors. Advances in Applied Microbiology. 2009. p. 97-139. [DOI:10.1016/S0065-2164(08)00805-8]
7. Caneva G, Nugari M, Salvadori O, editors. Plant biology for cultural heritage: biodeterioration and conservation. 1st ed. Los Ángeles, California, USA: Getty Conservation Institute; 2008. 400 p.
8. Cutler N, Viles H. Eukaryotic Microorganisms and Stone Biodeterioration. Geomicrobiol J. 2010 Sep 10;27(6-7):630-46. [DOI:10.1080/01490451003702933]
9. Tiano P. Biodeterioration of Stone Monuments a Worldwide Issue. Open Conf Proc J. 2016 Apr 8;7(suppl 1: M3):29-38. [DOI:10.2174/2210289201607020029]
10. Gorbushina AA. Life on the rocks. Environ Microbiol. 2007;9(7):1613-31. [DOI:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2007.01301.x]
11. Fernandes P. Applied microbiology and biotechnology in the conservation of stone cultural heritage materials. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2006;73(2):291-6. [DOI:10.1007/s00253-006-0599-8]
12. Eaton LK. A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals Spiro Kostof. J Soc Archit Hist. 2006;47(1):75-6. [DOI:10.2307/990258]
13. De Los Ríos A, Ascaso C. Contributions of in situ microscopy to the current understanding of stone biodeterioration. Int Microbiol. 2005;8(3):181-8.
14. Sterflinger K, Little B, Pinar G, Pinzari F, de los Rios A, Gu J-D. Future directions and challenges in biodeterioration research on historic materials and cultural properties. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation. 2018;129:10-2. [DOI:10.1016/j.ibiod.2017.12.007]
15. Shahbazi AS. The authoritative guide to Persepolis. Safiran Publishing Company, Tehran; 2004.
16. Schmidt EF. Persepolis I: Structures, Reliefs, Inscriptions. 1st ed. Chicago, USA: The University of Chicago Press; 1953. 297 p.
17. Herzfeld E. Prehistoric Persia I: A Neolithic Settlement at Persepolis; Remarkable New Discoveries. 1929.
18. Schmidt EF. Persepolis II: Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries. Chicago, USA: The University of Chicago Press; 1957.
19. Sterflinger K. Fungi: Their role in deterioration of cultural heritage. Fungal Biol Rev. 2010;24(1-2):47-55. [DOI:10.1016/j.fbr.2010.03.003]
20. Biswas J, Sharma K, Harris KK, Rajput Y. Biodeterioration agents: Bacterial and fungal diversity dwelling in or on the pre-historic rock-paints of Kabra-pahad , India. Iran J Microbiol. 2013;5(3):309-14.
21. Bryant DA, Frigaard N-U. Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated. Trends Microbiol. 2006;14(11):488-96. [DOI:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001]
22. González JM, Sáiz-Jiménez C. Application of molecular nucleic acid-based techniques for the study of microbial communities in monuments and artworks. Int Microbiol. 2005;8(3):189-94.
23. Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR. Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity. Vol. 180, Journal of Bacteriology. 1998. p. 4765-74. [DOI:10.1128/JB.180.18.4765-4774.1998]
24. Cámara B, De los Ríos A, Urizal M, Álvarez de Buergo M, Varas MJ, Fort R, et al. Characterizing the Microbial Colonization of a Dolostone Quarry: Implications for Stone Biodeterioration and Response to Biocide Treatments. Microb Ecol. 2011;62(2):299-313. [DOI:10.1007/s00248-011-9815-x]
25. Crispim CA, Gaylarde CC. Cyanobacteria and Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: A Review. Microb Ecol. 2005;49(1):1-9. [DOI:10.1007/s00248-003-1052-5]
26. Chen J, Blume HP, Beyer L. Weathering of rocks induced by lichen colonization - A review. Catena. 2000;39(2):121-46. [DOI:10.1016/S0341-8162(99)00085-5]
27. Grube M, Cardinale M, de Castro JV, Müller H, Berg G. Species-specific structural and functional diversity of bacterial communities in lichen symbioses. ISME J. 2009 Sep 25;3(9):1105-15. [DOI:10.1038/ismej.2009.63]
28. O'Neal MA, Legg NT, Hanson B, Morgan DJ, Rothgeb A. Lichenometric dating of rock surfaces in the northern cascade range, USA. Geogr Ann Ser A Phys Geogr. 2013;95(3):241-8. [DOI:10.1111/geoa.12012]
29. Wedin M, Maier S, Fernandez-brime S, Cronholm B, Westberg M, Grube M. Microbiome change by symbiotic invasion in lichens. Environ Microbiol. 2016;18(5):1428-39. [DOI:10.1111/1462-2920.13032]
30. Ariño X, Gomez-Bolea A, Saiz-Jimenez C. Lichens on ancient mortars. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation. 1997;40(2-4):217-24. [DOI:10.1016/S0964-8305(97)00036-X]
31. Banfield JF, Barker WW, Welch SA, Taunton A. Biological impact on mineral dissolution: Application of the lichen model to understanding mineral weathering in the rhizosphere. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1999 Mar 30;96(7):3404-11. [DOI:10.1073/pnas.96.7.3404]
32. Belnap J, Büdel B, Lange OL. Biological Soil Crusts: Characteristics and Distribution. In: Belnap J, Lange OL, editors. Biological Soil Crusts: Structure, Function, and Management Ecological Studies (Analysis and Synthesis). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg; 2001. p. 3-30. [DOI:10.1007/978-3-642-56475-8_1]
33. Corenblit D, Steiger J. Vegetation as a major conductor of geomorphic changes on the Earth surface: toward evolutionary geomorphology. Earth Surf Process Landforms. 2009;34(6):891-6. [DOI:10.1002/esp.1788]
34. Cappitelli F, Sorlini C. Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74(3):564-9. [DOI:10.1128/AEM.01768-07]
35. Sohrabi M, Favero-Longo SE, Pérez-Ortega S, Ascaso C, Haghighat Z, Talebian MH, et al. Lichen colonization and associated deterioration processes in Pasargadae, UNESCO world heritage site, Iran. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation. 2017;117:171-82. [DOI:10.1016/j.ibiod.2016.12.012]
36. Benedict JB. A Review of Lichenometric Dating and Its Applications to Archaeology. Am Antiq. 2009;74(1):143-72. [DOI:10.1017/S0002731600047545]
37. Gazzano C, Favero-Longo SE, Matteucci E, Roccardi A, Piervittori R. Index of Lichen Potential Biodeteriogenic Activity (LPBA): A tentative tool to evaluate the lichen impact on stonework. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation. 2009;63(7):836-43. [DOI:10.1016/j.ibiod.2009.05.006]
38. Seaward MRD. Lichens as Agents of Biodeterioration. In: Upreti DK, Divakar PK, Shukla V, Bajpai R, editors. Recent Advances in Lichenology. New Delhi: Springer India; 2015. p. 189-211. [DOI:10.1007/978-81-322-2181-4_9]
39. Adamo P, Violante P. Weathering of rocks and neogenesis of minerals associated with lichen activity. Appl Clay Sci. 2000;16(5-6):229-56. [DOI:10.1016/S0169-1317(99)00056-3]
40. Viles HA, Cutler NA. Global environmental change and the biology of heritage structures. Glob Chang Biol. 2012;18(8):2406-18. [DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02713.x]
41. Dyda M, Decewicz P, Romaniuk K, Wojcieszak M, Sklodowska A, Dziewit L, et al. Application of metagenomic methods for selection of an optimal growth medium for bacterial diversity analysis of microbiocenoses on historical stone surfaces. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation. 2018;131:2-10. [DOI:10.1016/j.ibiod.2017.03.009]

Rights and permissions
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.